History and Origins of ISIS

Introduction: The Importance of Understanding the Origins of ISIS

In 2025, the world continues to grapple with the consequences of the rise and persistence of ISIS. The group’s origins and evolution remain critical subjects for policymakers, scholars, and the public. Analysing the history of ISIS and the origins of ISIS provides insight into current security challenges, ongoing regional instability, and the group’s enduring influence. Therefore, this comprehensive review traces the development of ISIS from its roots in the late twentieth century to its present-day status, exploring the complex social, political, and religious factors that shaped its emergence and growth.

The Roots of ISIS: From Colonial Legacies to Modern Jihadism

To understand the origins of ISIS, one must first examine the historical context of the Middle East. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I left a power vacuum. Western colonial powers, particularly Britain and France, imposed artificial borders and installed new rulers, disregarding local identities and aspirations. This generated a legacy of instability.

As the 20th century continues, the region experienced a surge of Arab nationalism. Leaders such as Egypt’s Gamal Abdel Nasser promised modernisation and self-determination. However, these ambitions often faltered, leading to autocratic rule and social repression. Many citizens became disillusioned with secular nationalism, paving the way for radical Islamist movements.

The Rise of Radical Islamist Movements

During the 1970s and 1980s, authoritarian regimes in the Middle East suppressed political dissent and relied on foreign support, especially from the United States. This repression, combined with growing inequality and corruption, fuelled resentment. Radical Islamist groups began to challenge secular governments, advocating for a return to Islamic governance.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 proved pivotal. Thousands of Muslims from across the world joined the Afghan resistance, known as the mujahideen. Among them were Osama bin Laden, who would later found al-Qaeda, and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who would become a central figure in the history of ISIS. The Afghan conflict radicalised a generation of fighters and provided them with combat experience and international networks.

The Birth of Al-Qaeda and Its Global Jihad

In 1988, Osama bin Laden established al-Qaeda, aiming to unite jihadists in a global struggle against perceived enemies of Islam. Al-Qaeda’s ideology blended religious fundamentalism with political grievances, targeting both Western powers and secular regimes in the Muslim world. The group became notorious for high-profile attacks, most notably the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States.

Al-Qaeda’s influence spread rapidly, inspiring affiliates and offshoots across the Middle East and beyond. However, internal divisions and differing strategic priorities led to the emergence of new factions. One such faction would eventually evolve into ISIS, marking a significant shift in the landscape of global jihadism.

The US Invasion of Iraq and the Seeds of ISIS

The 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq marked a turning point in the history of ISIS. The removal of Saddam Hussein’s regime dismantled the Iraqi state, disbanded the army, and marginalised the Sunni Arab population. Many former soldiers and officials, left unemployed and disenfranchised, joined insurgent groups.

Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Jordanian jihadist, established a group known as Jama’at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad, which later became al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) after pledging allegiance to bin Laden in 2004. AQI launched a brutal campaign of violence, targeting coalition forces, the new Iraqi government, and Shia civilians. The group’s tactics, including suicide bombings and sectarian killings, distinguished it from other jihadist organisations.

The Evolution from AQI to ISIS

US and Iraqi forces dealt heavy blows to AQI during the 2007 troop surge, killing or capturing many of its leaders and reducing its operational capacity. However, the group survived by retreating to rural areas and exploiting local grievances. In 2010, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi became the leader of the group, now known as the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI).

The outbreak of the Syrian civil war in 2011 provided ISI with new opportunities. Baghdadi sent operatives to Syria, where they established Jabhat al-Nusra, an al-Qaeda affiliate. However, Baghdadi soon claimed authority over both Iraqi and Syrian jihadists, renaming the group the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in 2013. This move sparked a split with al-Qaeda, which rejected ISIS’s extreme violence and unilateral declaration of a caliphate.

The Declaration of the Caliphate and Rapid Expansion

ISIS capitalised on chaos in Iraq and Syria to seize vast territories. In June 2014, ISIS captured Mosul, Iraq’s second-largest city, and soon declared a caliphate with Baghdadi as its leader. The group controlled large swathes of Iraq and Syria, ruling over millions of people and establishing a proto-state with its own administration, courts, and military.

ISIS’s governance was marked by brutality, including mass executions, sexual slavery, and the destruction of cultural heritage. The group enforced a strict interpretation of Islamic law and used sophisticated propaganda to recruit fighters from around the world. At its peak, ISIS attracted tens of thousands of foreign recruits and inspired terrorist attacks globally.

The Role of Sectarianism and Local Grievances

The origins of ISIS are deeply intertwined with sectarian tensions. The group exploited Sunni resentment against Shia-dominated governments in Iraq and Syria. Many Sunnis, feeling marginalised and persecuted, saw ISIS as a defender of their community. ISIS also benefited from the collapse of state authority and the proliferation of armed groups during the Syrian civil war.

Regional powers, including Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey, further fuelled the conflict by supporting rival factions. The resulting proxy wars and shifting alliances created a fertile environment for ISIS to expand its influence. The group’s ability to adapt to local conditions and co-opt tribal leaders contributed to its rapid rise.

International Response and the Fall of the Caliphate

The international community responded to the rise of ISIS with a broad coalition of military and diplomatic efforts. The US-led Global Coalition Against Daesh launched airstrikes, supported local forces, and targeted ISIS’s leadership and infrastructure. By 2017, ISIS had lost most of its territory in Iraq and Syria, culminating in the fall of its last stronghold, Baghouz, in 2019.

Despite the loss of its caliphate, ISIS adapted by reverting to insurgency tactics. The group continues to carry out attacks, maintain sleeper cells, and inspire affiliates in Africa, Asia, and beyond. As of 2025, ISIS remains a persistent threat, especially in areas of ongoing instability such as Syria and Iraq.

ISIS’s Global Network and Ongoing Threat

After losing its territorial base, ISIS shifted its focus to global operations. The group’s affiliates, such as ISIS-K in Afghanistan and branches in Africa, have conducted numerous attacks and established local strongholds. ISIS uses digital platforms to spread propaganda, recruit members, and coordinate activities across borders.

The group’s resilience stems from its decentralised structure and ability to exploit local grievances. ISIS continues to attract followers by presenting itself as a champion of Sunni Muslims and an alternative to corrupt or ineffective governments. The threat of ISIS-inspired attacks remains significant in many regions, including Europe, Africa, and Asia.

The Role of Women, Children, and Propaganda

ISIS’s approach to recruitment and social organisation differs from earlier jihadist groups. The group actively incorporated women and children into its ranks, using them for combat, support roles, and propaganda purposes. This strategy expanded its base and allowed it to sustain operations despite heavy losses.

ISIS’s media operations are highly sophisticated. The group produces videos, magazines, and social media content to glorify its actions, intimidate enemies, and attract recruits. Propaganda emphasises themes of victimhood, resistance, and religious duty, resonating with disenfranchised individuals worldwide.

The Complex Causes Behind the Rise of ISIS

The history of ISIS and the origins of ISIS are shaped by a complex interplay of factors. Authoritarianism, political exclusion, sectarianism, foreign intervention, and economic hardship all contributed to the group’s emergence. The failed Arab Spring uprisings, which promised democracy but often led to renewed repression, created further disillusionment and radicalisation.

ISIS’s rise cannot be attributed to a single cause. Instead, it reflects the convergence of multiple crises: the collapse of state authority, the spread of extremist ideology, and the manipulation of local grievances by skilled leaders. The group’s ability to adapt and exploit changing circumstances has ensured its survival, even after losing its territorial base.

ISIS in 2025: Persistent Threats and New Challenges

In 2025, ISIS continues to pose a significant threat, particularly in Syria and Iraq. The group has shifted from governing territory to waging a low-level insurgency, launching attacks against government forces, rival militias, and civilians. ISIS maintains a network of sleeper cells and uses the vast Syrian desert as a sanctuary for training and regrouping.

Thousands of ISIS fighters remain in prisons and detention camps, creating risks of radicalisation and prison breaks. The political transition in Syria, following the fall of the Assad regime, has created new uncertainties. ISIS exploits these conditions to rebuild its capabilities and expand its influence.

The International Response in 2025

The Global Coalition Against Daesh, comprising 87 countries, continues to target ISIS militarily and financially. US and allied forces remain engaged in Syria, supporting local partners and conducting counterterrorism operations. However, the future of international involvement is uncertain, with debates over troop withdrawals and shifting priorities.

Regional powers, including Iran, Russia, and Turkey, pursue their own interests, sometimes complicating efforts to defeat ISIS. The group’s ability to exploit regional rivalries and political vacuums remains a key challenge for counterterrorism strategies.

Comparing ISIS and Al-Qaeda: Ideological and Strategic Differences

Although ISIS and al-Qaeda share a common ideological foundation in Salafi jihadism, they differ in important ways. Al-Qaeda prioritises global jihad against the West, while ISIS focuses on establishing and expanding its caliphate in the Middle East. ISIS’s willingness to declare a caliphate and its extreme brutality set it apart from al-Qaeda, which has often criticised ISIS’s tactics.

The rivalry between the two groups has shaped the evolution of jihadist movements. ISIS’s success in seizing territory and attracting recruits challenged al-Qaeda’s leadership, leading to competition and occasional conflict between their affiliates.

The Legacy and Impact of ISIS

The history of ISIS and the origins of ISIS continue to influence global security and regional politics. The group’s rise demonstrated the dangers of state collapse, sectarian conflict, and unaddressed grievances. ISIS’s ability to inspire attacks worldwide underscores the enduring appeal of its ideology to some segments of society.

Efforts to defeat ISIS have highlighted the importance of addressing root causes, including political exclusion, corruption, and economic hardship. Military action alone cannot eliminate the threat; comprehensive strategies that promote good governance, social inclusion, and economic opportunity are essential for long-term stability.

Conclusion: Lessons from the History and Origins of ISIS

In conclusion, the history of ISIS and the origins of ISIS reveal a story of adaptation, exploitation, and resilience. The group emerged from the ruins of war, authoritarianism, and failed governance, evolving into a formidable force that challenged regional and global security. Despite the loss of its caliphate, ISIS remains a persistent threat, adapting to new realities and exploiting ongoing instability.

Understanding the complex factors that enabled the rise of ISIS is crucial for preventing future insurgencies. Addressing political, social, and economic grievances, promoting inclusive governance, and countering extremist ideology are vital steps. As of 2025, the world must remain vigilant, learning from the past to build a more secure and just future.